Environmental Effects of Infant Intelligence
Researchers have been interested in the development of infant cognition for many decades. Phyllis L.F. Rippeyoung explains that Jean Piaget was a psychologist who suggested that cognitive development begins at birth. The child is taught in stages and gains knowledge. The child will learn about the world through this (“Is it too late …” 243″). Identification of environmental factors will help reduce the symptoms and risk of disability. Environmental influences can influence a child’s future. Even a seemingly insignificant factor can influence cognition. Environmental factors can include chemical and drug-related effects, family stimulation and interaction, mental and marital states of parents, infant health and nutrition, and even race.
Stephen A. Rauch’s and Bruce P. Lanphear’s article discusses the impact of environment on disabilities among children. They looked at how identifying and controlling the environment was relevant to preventing disabilities (193). Environment has a big impact on whether or not a kid develops disabilities. In particular, many disabilities are increasing. Autism is on the rise today. It is a debilitating disease that begins in childhood. Researchers have found that autism is a condition with environmental causes. They introduced this theory due to the sudden increase in autism. Mercury, lead, tobacco and organophosphate pesticides are all suspected environmental hazards.
ADHD also affects more children than autism. Rauch and Lanphear report that “While the biomarkers used by scientists has allowed them to connect exposure to environmental factors to disabilities in kids, the lengthy latency of exposure to disability makes this difficult to prove” (201). Then they address what is happening to resolve these grave problems: “Still… these studies raise important questions about whether the current regulatory framework should be revised. It allows children’s exposure to toxicants or chemical until the toxicity of the substance is proven.” (201). They then comment on what is being done about these serious issues: “Still, these studies raise serious questions about the need to revise the existing regulatory framework–which essentially allows children to be exposed to suspected toxicants or chemicals until there is definitive proof of their toxicity” (201).
According to Rauch, there are three ways that disabilities can be prevented: education and enforcement. Education involves educating individuals about the risks and disabilities. In order to enforce laws, they must be designed to prevent bad behavior. Engineering requires that the environment be handled with care to minimize exposure.
Environmental factors most often relate to the physical environments that children are in, such as their homes and neighborhoods. In the poorest of towns and villages there are many environmental factors that can lead to disabilities. Lead paint is used in some homes, which can cause cognitive issues such as ADHD and low IQ (Rauch and Lanphear 197).
Infants can be affected by a variety of factors. Rauch and Lanphear claim that “…environmentally inducing conditions experienced during childhood may compound and manifest themselves into chronic diseases as an adult or elderly person” (197). This covers a wide range of disabilities including cognitive impairments. Rauch and Lanphear discovered that many researchers were looking at the effects toxins have on cognition. According to them, “Black Carbon has been associated lower verbal or nonverbal IQ and poorer performance in memory …”. More studies confirm this.” Rauch and Lanphear explain that, although the links between airborne pollutants and cognitive function are not well-established (200), they do fit a wider pattern of toxic environmental exposures affecting brain development in children. Even the slightest exposure to toxins is dangerous. It can cause harm to unborn children and infants. (Rauch & Lanphear – 200). These toxins can cause premature births in mothers who are exposed to them. This could also affect the cognition and development of their children. Scholars have realized that the risk is not limited to mothers. There is no safe person.
Infants are more susceptible to the negative effects of chemicals and drugs than adults, due to their underdevelopment and age. Drugs have a more negative impact on infants than adults. Ian Adatia, among others, agrees with Rauch and Lanphear’s claim that negative drug influences can cause permanent or temporary brain damage. Cocaine, nicotine, alcohol and marijuana can all cause damage to the brain. It is for this reason that doctors recommend mothers refrain from engaging in any drug-related activities or use during the pregnancy period. Rina D.Eiden, YvetteVeira and Douglas A. Granger write, “Studies showed that chronically raised levels of cortisol could have adverse effects on brain functions, such as memory loss, learning deficits, state-regulating capacity, and social-emotional development.” (528). Exposure to such things, even after a child is born, can be harmful to their physical, emotional, and mental health. Infants are more likely to experience stress, cortisol hyperreactivity, a longer recovery time, or poor parenting. Parents have a large influence on the lives of infants. This will affect their response to the child’s needs if mothers are using drugs. In studies, it has been found that mothers are less sensitive to their children’s needs and less responsive.
Family interaction influences infant cognition in a very noticeable way. Natasha J. Cabrera discusses the influence of parent-child interactions and relationships. The researchers studied Latino children with their parents, and drew conclusions on infant cognition. The experiment involved field staff being trained to visit homes and observe interactions. They conducted a computer-assisted interviews with the mothers and recorded videos of their interactions with their children. 1194). The videos were taken by field staff and ranged between 45 seconds and five minutes. They showed the mother teaching a child a small task like hitting together blocks or turning pages of books (Cabrera 1194). The staff in the field gave the fathers of the children a questionnaire for him to fill out, depending on the relationship he had with his child. The father’s interaction was not as important.
The authors concluded both mental and marital states of parents have a direct impact on the infant. Parental Depression is “associated” with marital issues and a higher level of hostile or negative parental behavior, such as being insensitive to infants’ signals and inadequate stimulation (Cabrera, et.al. 1191-1192). Cabrera et al.’s experiments provide a proof. The results of the infant cognitive tests were used to examine the interaction between mother and baby. The researchers found that the test scores of children were higher if their mother’s mental state was positive and healthy (Cabrera, et. al. 1201). The infant’s scores on the test were lower if the mental state was depressed (Cabrera and al. 1203).
If neither parent’s mental well-being is good, then the marriage between the two parents could be in trouble. This will eventually affect the relationship between each parent and their infant. Both a healthy mental state and a happy marriage are important for a child’s cognitive growth. A mother-father marriage that is unhealthy or in trouble can negatively affect the children and vice versa. According to the authors, “”…positive relationship between father and mother in European American, Mexican American, and other families can have a significant positive effect on children’s development, while marital strife predicts a child’s poor adjustment” (1192). The child will feel happy if their parents are having a good marriage. The correlation does not apply only to babies. It also applies to older children, teenagers, and young adults if their parents have a close relationship with them.
Rippeyoung mentions a factor similar to the family composition that has a bearing on infant cognition (“Is Is Too Late …”240) The pressure on a mother is much greater if she never married, or if the father of her child has left. The infant’s cognitive ability may be more limited in this case than it would be if the situation was reversed (240). The mother of the child should be married. Both the child and the mother experience a reduction in stress. Cognitive effects of the infant are less negative.
It is important to have a good relationship with your baby. This includes stimulating the child. Researchers Joscha K. Kartner and Heidi Keller studied mothers’ interactions. The researchers say that mothers intuitively respond to infants’ signals in a short time period, usually less than a moment (540). The way this is portrayed in each family varies. Nulliparous women worry more about their children than multiparous moms. This behavior is beneficial to the infants, whether mothers realize it or not. The brain development of babies is dependent on stimulation. When mothers react, infants start “perceiving themselves as causal agent whose behaviour directly affects their environment” (Kartner and al. 540). Kartner Keller, and Yovsi continue, “This information has profound implications for the infants’ cognitive and social-emotional processes in the future” (540).
Rippeyoung explains that scholars have disputed negative cognitive effects of having more siblings (“Is It too Late …”240”). The more kids in a home, the faster and more depleted these resources become. While this may be true, the scholars don’t believe it will negate the growth in infant cognition.
Rippeyoung says that infant stimulation plays a key role in cognitive development. Infants are able to learn new words through this method (“Is it too late …” 239″). It is important that parents stimulate their children, but other family members should also be involved. Interactions that can stimulate interaction include reading, singing and storytelling. Rippeyoung discusses the idea of “direct talk” in which language is used through such methods as reading, asking questions, imitating, and repeating.
The interaction between parents and their babies stimulates the growth of the child. No stimulation means no cognitive development. Rippeyoung says that stimulation, or learning language, is crucial for a young child. Stimulation challenges the child to learn both to communicate as well as to use his senses to explore the world. Rippeyoung suggests mothers’ failure to stimulate their infants is due to the fact that they have decided to go back to work (239). She spends very little time with her child because she’s away so much. While other people can stimulate a child’s development with interaction (babysitters, daycare providers), the stimulation of a mother is unmatched.
Stimulation for babies is beneficial, but can sometimes be harmful to children. The mental state of the parent or caregiver determines whether the child is stimulated in a positive or negative way. Researchers Liat tikotzky & Avi Sadeh studied the influence of parental cognitions during infant sleep. Their findings suggest that parents’ perceptions of child behavior can affect child behavior. The influence of parental cognitions on child behavior may be mediated by the way parents react and behave towards their child. Parents may be irritated when their infant wakes up in the middle of the night because they’re exhausted by the parenting stress. As the parents attempt to calm and settle their infant, they may have a negative attitude toward them, which could cause the child to feel worried or anxious. It is also possible that the parents are disengaged (861). Tikotzky, Sadeh, and others state, “”… infant sleeping problems [are] strongly correlated to maternal cognition relating to difficulties with setting limits, increased doubts in parenting competence, or increased anger over the infant’s requests” (861). The child is negatively affected by a parent with a bad attitude. This stimulation is harmful to infants.
Health and stimulation are both important factors in a child’s cognitive development. Malnutrition is known to decrease cognitive function. Breastfeeding can have a significant impact on a child’s life. Researchers have a lot of disagreements about the benefits and drawbacks of breastfeeding. While some believe that it’s a healthy way to feed your baby, others do not. Recent research indicates that breastfeeding has a positive impact on infant cognition. However, the extent to which this occurs is still not known. Seaneen Sloan Moira Steward and Laura Dunne say that cognitive development is known as being dependent on many genetic, socio-economic, and environmental factors (107). The authors conclude “it is not clear whether differences between cognitive performance and breast milk are directly related” (Sloan Stewart Dunne). The research shows there can be positives to breastfeeding.
Rippeyoung, too, has studied breastmilk’s effects on infants. She claims that breastmilk can help explain why infants are not developing cognitively as they should (“Can breastfeeding solve inequality? The Relative Mediating Impact of breastfeeding and home environment on poverty gaps in Canadian child cognitive skills” 66). She states: “Research shows that breastfeeding has a positive influence on child’s health, as shown by the promotion of it by Health Canada. The Public Health Agency of Canada. and the World Health Organization.” She goes on to say that breastfeeding can help children achieve higher IQs (69). Scholars hold many different opinions about this subject. Some people say that milk does not affect the IQ, but genetics. Both sides have good arguments. Many studies have been conducted, but they do not take into account the mother’s intelligence. Sloan’s research did not take into consideration the mother’s IQ but did consider the mother’s educational levels.
The mother’s intelligence is taken into account in a highly-respected study. This study found that the main cause of high IQ was not breastfeeding, but the high IQ of the mother.
Racial differentiation has an impact on infants’ cognitions. Since 1917, black people’s test scores have consistently been lower than those of white people. Rippeyoung examined the beginning of this differentiation, which was infancy. She used data collected by the Early Childhood Longitudinal Birth Cohort of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Birth Cohort of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Birth Cohort to “assess if a racial divide exists in cognitive abilities, such as child’s exploratory behavior, babbling and early problem-solving, and the use words, for infants between 6 and 22 months of age… and determine what factors explain this” (“Is it too late …”236) Rippeyoung analyzed some of those factors.
Scholars have determined, through their research, that the differences in scores between white and black children can be attributed to the family background of the children, as well. Rippeyoung states that economic inequality can be a cause, but that it is not the only cause (237). Another possible reason for the gap could be that the infants are not stimulated because their mothers work. It is true that poorer families needing extra income are more likely to force their mothers to work. However, this does not apply to families of different races. Rippeyoung’s research has shown that the mother’s work seems to negatively affect non-Hispanic children of white race, but not children of any other race (239). She continued, “It is possible that, for African American families who are poorer, working increases the family’s resources. But, working can reduce cognitively stimulating interaction between parents and their children in those families that have sufficient resources” (239).
They also found that this gap is most prevalent among those older than two. They found a small difference between test scores for black and white infants aged 8 to 12 months. Standard deviation units show a difference of around 0.055. Also, they say that scores for Hispanics and Asians infants are slightly less than whites. Although there are small differences between infants of different races in their cognition, these differences do not become significant until they reach the age of two. This level is where the standard deviation difference becomes much larger, about 0.3 or 0.4. As Rippeyoung concluded, the difference increases as children get older.
Infants’ cognitive development is heavily influenced by the environment. Cognitive development can be affected by a variety of factors including drug and chemical-related factors, family stimulation and interaction, parental mental health and marital standing, infant nutrition and well-being, and even race. Understanding the factors that affect infants’ cognition can help scholars gain insight into how to possibly prevent disabilities. Autism and ADHD are increasing in prevalence today. Researchers and scholars would have been able to prevent these disorders if they had identified possible environmental causes.